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Sexy red: Perceived sexual receptivity mediates the red-attraction relation in men viewing woman

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Abstract

In many non-human primate species, female red displays are a signal of sexual receptivity and this signal attracts male conspecifics. In the present research, we proposed and tested a human analog whereby perceived sexual receptivity mediates the relation between red and sexual attraction in men viewing women. Two experiments were conducted, each of which provided support for the hypothesized mediational model. Experiment 1 documented the mediational role of perceived sexual receptivity using the experimental–causal-chain approach, and Experiment 2 did so using the measurement-of-mediation approach. Alternative mediator variable candidates were ruled out, and participants showed no evidence of awareness of the red effect. These findings document red as a subtle, but surprisingly powerful environmental stimulus that can serve parallel functions in the mating game for human and non-human primates.

Highlights

► Men perceive women in red as sexually receptive. ► Men perceive sexually receptive women as attractive. ► Perceived sexual receptivity is responsible for the red-attraction link. ► Results are consistent across two methods of documenting mediation.

Introduction

Female red displays play an integral role in the mating process of many non-human primate species (e.g., baboons, chimpanzees). Females display red on their face, chest, or genitalia as a signal of sexual receptivity (Dixson, 1983, Setchell and Wickings, 2004), and male conspecifics respond with increased gaze, self-stimulation, and copulation attempts (Bielert et al., 1989, Waitt et al., 2006). Elliot and Niesta (2008) recently demonstrated that red displays are also important in the mating game for human males and females. They observed that men find women wearing red to be more attractive and sexually desirable; they did not, however, investigate the psychological process responsible for this effect.

Herein we propose and test the hypothesis that perceived sexual receptivity mediates the link between red and sexual attraction in men viewing women. Data supporting this hypothesis would not only provide a more thorough understanding of the amorous influence of red in humans, but would establish a more precise and detailed cross-species parallel regarding the signal function of red in mating contexts.

The first step in our proposed mediational model is that men view red on a woman as a signal of sexual receptivity. The societal pairing of red and female sexual receptivity has a long history. Red was used as early as 10,000 B.C.E. in lipstick and rouge to mimic the red blush of sexual interest and excitation (Low, 1979); red has been used in mythology, folklore, and literature throughout the ages to represent sexual promiscuity and passion (Hutchings, 2004, Jobes, 1962); and red has long signaled sexual availability in red-light districts. Thus, men may associate red and female sexual receptivity due to societal conditioning.

This red-receptivity link may also be rooted in biology. Women's skin tone lightens during ovulation, their general blood flow is enhanced, and they are more easily sexually aroused (Bullivant et al., 2004, Lynn et al., 2007, Van den Berghe and Frost, 1986). As such, the aforementioned red blush of sexual interest and excitation may be more prevalent and visible midcycle, meaning women, like other female primates, may display red more prominently when most fertile. If so, it is likely that men, like other male primates, are biologically predisposed to interpret red on a female conspecific as a signal of sexual readiness.

Our proposal, that red conveys the meaning of sexual receptivity for men viewing women, may be derived from societal conditioning or biological considerations alone, but we suspect that both are implicated in the red-receptivity link. Specifically, we contend that the societal pairing of red and female sexual receptivity is not random, but emerged from a biologically-based predisposition to interpret female red as a sexual signal. Indeed, the societal use of red may not only reinforce the biological predisposition, but may extend it beyond the tether of natural bodily processes. Accordingly, red may not only mean sexual readiness when viewed on a woman's body, but also when viewed on objects in close proximity to her body. In the present research, we predict that men viewing a woman wearing a red shirt will perceive her to be more sexually receptive.

The second step in our proposed mediational model is that men view sexually receptive women as particularly attractive and desirable. Men may prefer sexually receptive women because pursuing such women facilitates sexual conquests; a large number of sexual conquests is congruent with gender-specific standards and scripts and, therefore, is rewarded with admiration and social status (Oliver & Hyde, 1993). Men may also prefer sexually receptive women because pursuing such women increases their chances of reproductive success via mating with many sexual partners in efficient fashion (i.e., low time and effort costs; Schmitt & Buss, 1996). The available data support a receptivity–attraction link, as men rate women exhibiting receptivity cues (e.g., suggestive postures, provocative dancing) as more attractive (Clark, 2008, Schmitt et al., 2001), and are more inclined to make advances toward such women (Hendrie, Mannion, & Godfrey, 2009). This effect is not limited to humans, but is present in many other mammalian species, including primates (Andersson, 1994, Beach, 1976).

In the present research, we not only predicted a link between men's perceptions of women's sexual receptivity and men's sexual attraction, we also predicted that perceived sexual receptivity would be the psychological mechanism that explains the direct influence of red on sexual attraction. Furthermore, given the subtlety of red as a stimulus cue, we anticipated that the effect of red would take place without participants' conscious awareness. Finally, and importantly, we tested two other candidate mediators, kindness and intelligence, characteristics that men across cultures value in women (Buss, 1989). If, as hypothesized, red carries a specific sexual meaning, rather than a positive meaning in general, sexual receptivity alone would be confirmed as a mediator. We conducted two experiments to test our predictions using two different, complementary, approaches to mediation.

Section snippets

Experiment 1a

Experiment 1 tested whether perceived sexual receptivity mediates the influence of red on perceived attractiveness using the experimental-causal-chain approach (Spencer, Zanna, & Fong, 2005). Experiment 1a examined the first link in the hypothesized causal chain. White was used as an unobtrusive, achromatic contrast to red.

Experiment 1b

Experiment 1b examined the second link in the hypothesized causal chain.

Experiment 2

Experiment 2 tested both links in the mediational model simultaneously using the measurement-of-mediation approach (see Baron & Kenny, 1986). We also sought to rule out two alternative mediator variables. Green was used as a chromatic contrast to red; this allowed us to test the influence of hue while controlling the other two color properties, lightness and chroma.

General discussion

The present research provides strong support for our hypothesized mediational model. Women wearing red were perceived by men as more sexually receptive, and it is precisely this receptivity that men found attractive. We obtained our findings using two different contrast colors, two different female targets, and two different mediational approaches. We ruled out two alternative, like-valenced mediators, and found no evidence of participants' awareness of the effect.

A noteworthy aspect of our

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    Part of this research was supported by grant GR 1882/12-1 from the German Research Foundation to Tobias Greitemeyer.

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